Principles of Scientific Management Essays

Principles of Scientific Management Essays Principles of Scientific Management Paper Principles of Scientific Management Paper Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856 1915), is said to be the father of scientific management. Taylors theories on efficient management emerged in a late 19th century/early 20th Century context when industries were experiencing rapid growth in both size and complexity. His concepts form the basis of modern management as we know it today. This essay will examine fundamental aspects of the Scientific Management movement, and will look at how these key ideas are implemented in the modern day context of a 21st Century organisation. The company I have chosen is Vodafone, a global firm with an operation in NZ. More specifically, I will be looking at the Vodafone Call Centre and its management practices. Key aspects I will cover include Taylors scientific research, designed to discover the most efficient one best way of working, and how this aligns with Vodafones means of establishing the best practice benchmark. I will discuss Taylors scientific selection and training method and Vodafones application of this approach. Other aspects such as the role of the manager, employee motivation and employee satisfaction within Vodafone will be covered, with close reference to the ideas of Taylorism. The conclusion will summarize my observations. Scientific research is the starting block of Taylors Scientific Management theory. In order to achieve Taylors principle objective of maximising prosperity for both the employer and employee (Allen, et al. 2002), extensive research must be carried out to discover the best method and most reasonable time the task should be allocated, the one best way. The most efficient worker in the company was selected, and then examined on task. All of his unnecessary movements were eliminated until the fastest rate of task completion was achieved. This technique is called time/motion study and was developed by both Taylor and Gilbreth (Wren, 1998). Through this scientific research, the First Class Man standard was established, to which all other workers were expected to meet on a daily basis (Allen, et al. 2003). At Vodafone, similar research is conducted by management to establish Best Practice. Information is sourced from Vodafone international and also from external companies with comparative roles. Hired consultants also provide research services to Vodafones call centre. From this information, customer statistics are derived, call cycles planned, and best practice (the Customer Service Representative [CSR] benchmark) is established. For example, multiple phone calls are timed and listened in on, and conclusions are then drawn by management as to which approaches and methods are most effective for the CSRs to use, relevant to different customer needs and personalities. One conclusion that has been drawn from this scientific research is that the time allowance of phone calls should be on average 4 min 10 sec. Best practice in the call centre is defined by four Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). First call resolution means resolving a customers issue in the first phone call, avoiding passing them around or having to call them back. The second KPI is Quality. CSRs phone calls are randomly listened in on by the manager who assesses performance. Next Best Activity refers to value adding. CSRs need to look up the customers profile and sell to them depending on their cellphone habits (for example, whether the customer texts or makes calls). The last KPI is retention, where managers analyse how well a CSR managers to retain a disgruntled customer. Taking into account Taylors research, the next step was to scientifically select, train and develop the most suitable workers for the respective task, rather than leaving the employee to autonomously adapt to their role (Melman, 2001). According to Taylor, everyone had the potential to perform at the first class standard for some job. It is the task of management to identify the most suitable job for each individual, and train them in that position (Allen, et al. 2002). At Vodafone, there is an entire management team solely devoted to training CSRs for call centre work. Their role includes running a 6 week induction training period of employees, including teaching the technology, sales plans, how to deal with difficult customers, how to engage customers and so on. They are trained to meet the benchmark established through Taylors research process. Part of the managers role is also to up skill existing employees based on their performance reviews. A 5-point rating scheme is used to assess performance, with one being a poor performer and five being outstanding. Taylors Scientific Management method requires managers to work closely with workers, developing and encouraging, as well as to evaluate their potential within their role. The manager must maximise a workers proficiency in their job, or failing this, must find the worker a better suited role within the company (Allen, et al. 2003). The managers role involves instruction cards, rosters, timekeeping and reporting. Workers productivity can then be analysed and compared, with high and low performers subsequently rewarded or punished (Melman, 2001). Vodafone call centre managers implement this method through daily, weekly and monthly reports. The Daily Dashboard includes and snapshot of the previous days KPI results, while weekly and monthly employee reports are more comprehensive, analysing performance, sick and annual leave figures, employee turnover and total quality results. If an employee is falling below 3 points in performance rating, the call centre manager will adopt Taylors approach, identifying the problems and fixing them in a process called performance managing. If the employee possesses good skills but is in the wrong job, secondments are offered, meaning the employee can be placed in another role for a fixed time to see how he/she operates in that role (for example, a telemarketer can work for three months in the faults service section). The Taylorist approach involves a distinct separation between the organisational structure, routine-technical planning, inspections and all other clerical work, and the labour itself. There is an equal share of work and responsibility given to manager and the labourer. While managers strategise and plan, workers actually perform the tasks (Allen, et al. 2002). Vodafone adopts this principle, and have numerous management teams who deal to different aspects of the company while the CSRs work on the phones. For example, management teams for training, forecasting customer activity, for statistics and research, development and employee satisfaction. Taylors primary method of motivation was monetary incentives. He claims that Scientific Management cannot work unless there are benefits for the worker. Tasks should be arranged in such a way that if a worker produces more, he can get paid more (Gabor, 2000). Additionally, rewards must be issued without delay, so the worker receives instant gratification and can tangibly measure the personal benefits of his labour (Taylor, 1967). Vodafone works on a pay-by-performance scheme, and salaries are increased or decreased at an annual review, depending on the individual workers quality performance record. Scholarships and international placements are among some of the rewards offered. However, in contrast to Taylors theory, Vodafone believes job satisfaction and alignment with the companys values are also important factors in achieving hard-working employees. Taylor proposed the concept of functional foremen, managers who defied the traditional military-style supervision of firms in his day. These managers did not have disciplinary power, so that their role meant supervision over some aspect of work, not the person. Disciplinary issues were left to a disciplinary committee, and managers were freed to focus on production and quality control (Clegg, S. Kornberger, M. Pitsus, T. , 2005). The Vodafone call center has a straightforward process of dealing with discipline. Minor incidents are dealt with by a call center manager, while more serious problems may be brought before the cue management team. A call centre manager has a span of control of eight CSRs, and as a values-based organisation, good will and equality is encouraged between worker and manager, so the nee d for discipline is ideally avoided altogether. Taylor incentivized suggestion schemes to encourage employees to give input on improvements they felt needed to be made. Employees should be given the full credit for the improvement and should be paid a cash premium as a reward for his ingenuity (Allen, et al. 2003, pg 107). Vodafones intranet has a staff Blog, where employees can keep up to date with what is happening in the managerial level of the company, and they are invited to give feedback or suggestions. Employees are praised for innovative suggestions and displays of initiative, and are rewarded with anything from free phones to an all expenses paid trip in the Asia/Pacific region, depending on their KPIs and annual performance reviews. The operation of the Vodafone call centre adopts many fundamental aspects of Scientific Management. Evidence of Taylors methods can be found throughout the organisation, in researching, selection and distribution of employees, call centre induction training programs and performance management programs. Management teams are put in place to scientifically monitor individual employees quality performance rates, customer service skills and job suitability. Taylors methods of motivating workers are evident in Vodafones incentive schemes and reward packages. Vodafone have implemented modern management styles into their operation to include a more humanistic approach, but as this essay has outlined, the basic principles of Taylors Scientific Management are still clearly evident in the framework of their organisation.

Bergner Construction Case Essays

Bergner Construction Case Essays Bergner Construction Case Essay Bergner Construction Case Essay Discuss the Company: * Located in Cleveland, Ohio * Mechanical contracting business, specializing in specialty construction projects in food and beverage manufacturing facilities. * â€Å"Custom-built† contractor, using primary stainless steel to build the vessels and piping necessary for assembly lines in food beverage processing. * They work on a project-by-project basis, for which it provides engineering design and construction expertise to its clients. * Required relatively little, complex specialized production equipment , and most inventory was associated with specific job in progress * Thinly capitalized (equity less than debt) History: * The company was incorporates in 1982 by president John Bergner * He did business with FirstOhio Bank of Cleveland, where his account was handled by Peter Davis and a good relationship was kept between them for five years from 1982 till 1987 * In December 1987, Mr. Davis accepted a new position at Westside National Bank. Located in Cleveland * Therefore, a new loan officer was appointed for the company in January 1988 Present Position: Bergner Construction Company had recorded a small net operating profit of $13,088 (net income of 16502) in 1987 * During the first four months of 1988, the company’s completed jobs slumped, leading to a loss of $53,556 (net loss of 47682) due to problems encountered on one project, for which a former estimator had underestimate a construction cost. (If no single project is excessively dominant, then a loss on one does not imply that the firm’s profit potential would be significantly affected). * The company enjoyed a sales growt h rate of 23 percent over the past 2 years, and projected sales by the end of 1988 were $1. million Management of the company: * The company’s president: John Bergner was 40 years of age. * He had a degree in mechanical engineering from Ohio State University. * Bergner began his career as a foreman for a large construction company that manufactured specialty food and beverage facilities. He formed his own company, which was incorporated in 1982 Operations of the company: * Bergner construction company had limited its operations to the Midwestern market, generally within a 500-mile radius of Cleveland * Mr. Bergner had always been anxious to expand his business, and specially to search for contracts in other part of the country to achieve greater geographical diversification. The case: * Bergner had successfully bid for a renovation project at Pepsi-Cola bottling plant in Boulder, Colorado in April 1988 * Increase line of credit from $100,000 to $250,000 to finance a large construction project that his company had just been awarded to cover his losses. * But the new loan officer of FirstOhion bank refused the request so he wanted to transfer his account to Westside National, where he hoped his business would continue to be handled by Mr. Davis. * Mr. Davis recommended John Bergner’s company at the bank’s loan committee, stressing his honesty and positive business attitude. * He was prepared to approve a loan because of his honesty even if the client’s financial statements might be considered somewhat weak. * So Mr. Davis had a meeting with the Loan Review Committee and requested the following: 1. The sum of $100,000, which would be CD secured, the proceeds of which would be used to pay off Bergner’s outstanding debt at FirstOhio bank. ( he must not take loan to repay another loaN OR a loss) 2. A $250,000 revolving line of credits to be secured by accounts receivable and inventory (replacing an existing line of $100,000 at FirstOhio). The company’s inventory consisted mainly of work in progress and raw materials. (Inventory mostly work in process so it can’t be used as collateral, but with regards to A/R it can be used as collateral due to its large amount BUT if 250000 was used as collateral he would not be able to pay-off his A/P) 3. A total of $128,000 in various equipment loans. These loans were secured by filings on various pieces of equipment, such as trucks, cars, forklifts, air compressors, and other tools. These loans were already approved and funded at FirstOhio. The loans and related security arrangements would also be moved, but this represented no increase in balances outstanding on this equipment. In most cases, the bank financed 100 percent of the original cost of equipment purchased. * By expanding his business, it would represent the largest single construction project that his company had ever undertaken ($400,000), and he projected a 15 percent pretax profit of 60000 as part of his winning bid. Its successful completion would, he hoped, improve prospects for future profitability.

The advantages and disadvantages of federal government Essay

The advantages and disadvantages of federal government - Essay Example hout waiting for the endorsement of the central government however, several other matters are decided by the states and the regional governments have to follow the same rules and regulations1. Federal governance system has evolved as one of the common and popular form of government across the world. At present, there are several countries of different region of the world that are following the federal government structure including USA, Canada, Australia, India, Brazil, Mexico and Pakistan2. For many other countries like Sri Lanka and Philippines where federalism is not in practice, the advantages and disadvantages of federal government is an important area of concern because any potential changes in the national governing set of these countries heavily depends upon the fact that how these countries views the pros and cons of federalism3. Some important advantages and disadvantages of federal government are discussed below It has been widely accepted that the federal governance system has several important advantages as compared with other system of governance like unitary and confederate government. Some of these are described below In the federal governance system all the provinces use to have the political, social and economic problems peculiar to their own region. The provincial governments are thus enabled to specifically concentrate towards the resolution of the issues and problems evolved within their area of authority. The representatives of the provincial government also line is close proximity to the people of their province and most of the times the representatives also belong to the same communities that constitute that province. In this way, they tend to have better and in depth understanding of the matters and problems of the people of their province that allows them offering unique and targeted solutions for the problems of their province4. The provincial governments usually encounter several matters at local basis like traffic management. There

Persuation paper regarding Family Therapy in school setting Essay

Persuation paper regarding Family Therapy in school setting - Essay Example Also, student needs are being met by career counselors and nurses, so it would be a good idea to have family therapy added. Family therapy would help families stay together. There are many problems that families have that students have to deal with on a daily basis. When they come to school they may be tired, upset, or angry and they have no where to go to talk about their feelings. A family therapy program could help them by allowing them to talk about their feelings. The therapist could then bring the entire family in during school hours and everyone would be helped. Although many parents would have to work during school hours, they may be able to get off for an hour or two in order to do therapy. Family therapy would be free in school. Many families do not have money to go t a therapist in the community and some people do not have insurance that will pay for them to go. By having a family therapy program in school, the cost could be paid for through a grant or other educational fu nd. There might also be people in the community who would contribute to the program. When there is a problem with a student and there is no place in school for them to go, they have to find someone outside of school to help them. If they do not have the resources to find someone, they do not get the help they need. A family therapy program would accomplish two things in this situation: The first thing it would do is help them have a therapist they already know. During the school day, a family therapist could get to know students and begin to understand their problems. The second thing that this would accomplish is that it would give parents a person who already knew their child from school. Bothe the parents and the child would have a therapist they were already comfortable seeing. Some parents might be afraid to go to family counseling because they would feel they would not want to have the school know their family business. However, if their child was having problems in school, th ey should be encouraged to help their child in any situation. Some parents might feel that going to a therapist means they are mentally ill or that people would think they were crazy. A family therapy program could encourage parents to come in for events that were geared just for them. As an example, a tea or a luncheon to tell parents about the program would be an ideal way for them to get to know more about the family therapy program. The therapist and the principal could make sure that all students take home information about the counseling program that would encourage parents to come to these events or stop in if they needed to talk to someone. Many schools have school psychologists but they are not the same as a therapist. The school psychologists usually do a lot of testing and they do not really do counseling. The therapist would be able to be the one to do the counseling and they may also get some ideas from the psychologist about what issues students need to address in thei r studies. Some of the issues that a counselor could help students with would include: adjustment to school, adjustment to divorce, any abuse issues that might happen at home, alcohol or drug abuse, and peer pressure. These are just some of the issues a skilled counselor could help with and by talking about these issues students may be able to do better in school. Counselors could also do group counseling. There would be students who have the same issues and they could come together as a group and talk about their problems. Maybe

Interpreter of Maladies Essay Example for Free

Interpreter of Maladies Essay Throughout life, people are faced with many obstacles, but one of the main things for people to do is adapt to the obstacles and learn how to move through and around them. Individuals have to change in order to adapt to the life around them, but there are times when it is too difficult for some to change. Some may experience immense trauma and find it difficult to move on from things whilst others find it hard to come to terms with new life. No matter what people are forced to do things that they may not want to do, but they have to choose whether to adapt to these changes, or suffer the consequences. Being able to adapt in life is an important skill as people are faced with having to change daily. However, some individuals do not have the skills required to adapt, or they have been through traumatic experiences that inhibit that ability to adapt. Shoba and Shukumar in the story â€Å"A Temporary Matter† are faced with a horrific ordeal which forces them to adapt to new life, this however, does not turn out the way they had planned and they eventually split up from not being able to fully adapt and accept the changes â€Å"they’d been through enough† and Shoba â€Å"needed some time alone†, their relationship eventually dissolves. A similar thing happened to Mrs Sen in â€Å"Mrs Sen’s. † She was forced to adapt to a new country and learn their way of life, this although, proves to be too difficult for Mrs Sen as she was unable to successfully learn how to drive â€Å"I hate it. I hate driving. I won’t go on. † Mrs Sen just ends up frustrated and defeated. Her main challenge was her inability to adapt to a new culture as she was living in her past, constantly trying to mix the two cultures together. This turns out unsuccessful as well as she finds people in her new home, treat her as if she was strange, â€Å"an old woman on the bus kept watching them† the people around Mrs Sen felt uncomfortable at times which made it even more difficult for Mrs Sen to adapt and change to the new community and life around her. Mrs Sen chooses to retreat into her past, something that she is comfortable and familiar with, â€Å"she pulled the blade out of the cupboard, spread newspapers across the carpet, and inspected her treasures. † The fish to her is safe and brings her back to ‘better times’ in her life, when she was happy. In some ways, people are better at some things than others, adaptability is one. In â€Å"This Blessed House† Sanjeev had to adapt to the situation he was faced with; either taking away the religious icons and upsetting his wife, or putting up with them, just so he could please her. Although Sanjeev was able to accept Twinkles fascination with the icons in the end and let her indulge herself with keeping them around the house â€Å"for the rest of their days together she would keep it on the mantel†, he had a hard time coming to terms with it. People tend to struggle with new challenges, but some are able to overcome that struggle, such as Sanjeev. This idea is also borne out by â€Å"The Third and Final Continent† as the narrator in the story struggles with the changes in his life when he first moves, but he eventually learns a routine and adapts choosing to use the same pattern over and over again as it becomes safe and familiar, he ate â€Å"cornflakes and milk, morning and night† which was easy for him. When moving into Mrs Croft’s house, he had to adapt again, learning her environment and how things worked in her house, â€Å"fasten the chain and firmly press that button on the knob! This is the first thing you will do when you enter. † He not only had to adapt to his external environment but his internal environment as well. Mrs Croft would always expect the same from him whenever they spoke, always waiting for him to respond with â€Å"Splendid! † after her remarks. An ongoing quality for the narrator in â€Å"The Third and Final Continent† is that he had to adapt to many things, including an arranged marriage. He had to adapt to a new person coming into his life and living with him for the rest of his life. This was substantiated to be difficult at first, but soon grew on him â€Å"for the first time, we looked at each other and smiled†, he welcomed her company in the end and truly loved her. If he was unable to adapt, this would not be the case. In a similar way, Miranda had many obstacles to adapt to as well. She was challenged when starting a relationship with Dev, as she had never had a physical relationship with a married man before. She struggles with this for a little while when his wife comes back, as it seems wrong when then wife is home, but she learns to adapt to not being able to go out with Dev and only being able to stay inside with him from fear of his wife seeing them. But, in the end Miranda had to adapt to a life without Dev. We are left with the thought that she is ble to move on and change into a better person as she â€Å"walked past the restaurants where Dev had kissed her,† and gazed at the â€Å"clear-blue sky,† proving to us the she has moved on from a life with Dev. In most people’s realities, they are able to pick themselves up and adapt to new changes, but there are also those rare people who struggle to do just that and it is too difficult to try and change. These people are forced to deal with other challenges in their life that they will e ventually learn to overcome. In Lahiri’s stories, she shows us that in order to succeed individuals need to be adaptable.

5 Major Perspectives in Psychology :: Psychology Perspective essays research papers

The five major theoretical perspectives in psychology are biological, learning, cognitive, psychodynamic, and sociocultural perspectives. Each one of these perspectives searches for answers about behavior through different techniques and through looking for answers to different kinds of questions. Due to the different approaches, each perspective form their own assumptions and explanations. Some perspectives are widely accepted while others struggle for acceptance. Biological perspective "The premise behind the biological perspective in psychology is that all actions, feelings, and thoughts are associated with bodily events." Biological psychologists examine how all of the electrical impulses, hormones, and chemicals flowing through the body can effect behavior and how changes to these bodily functions can change behavior. They are concerned with how the aspects of biology effect peoples' emotions, learning abilities, and their perception of events. One of the major theories of biological psychology is that "We cannot know ourselves if we do not know our bodies." Through application of this theory, biological psychologists strive to understand the relationship between the mind and body and they influence sickness or health. It is believed that poor health can lead to negative attitudes while poor attitudes can lead to poor health. Biological psychologists research and study the correlation of this theory in an attempt to help solve some mental and emotional problems. Learning Perspective The writings and findings of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner have done much for the advancement of modern psychology. Many of the important findings in psychology from their theory of behaviorism, later evolving into the social-learning theory or cognitive social-learning theory. Proponents of the learning perspective think that mentalism should be abandoned for behaviorism. Psychologists should concentrate on observation and direct measurement rather focusing on introspection. Behaviorists believed that actions were responses to stimuli that were learned. The basic concept was that positive responses would be triggered by good stimuli while negative responses would could from bad stimuli. Actions that would produce positive results tended to repeated, while those that led to negative results tended to be avoided. This concept led to a broadening of psychology. Many groups that were often overlooked by psychologists were being discovered and observed. Behavior became the dominant school of psychology in the U.S. until the 1960's. Adversaries to this approach were repulsed by the concept that humans did not think or feel, but only thought that they did. Nonbehaviorists and behaviorists parted company. Behaviorists believed that feelings could not explain behavior.

Teachers of Today †Who They Are and What They Need to Know

Assignment 2 – Paper – Teachers of Today – who they are and what they need to know Word count (2,382): Final Word count (2,264): INTRODUCTION Exciting, and rewarding are just some characteristics that explain teaching. Overcoming anxiety and nerves in the first year is our greatest challenge. Moving into the classroom for the first time can be a daunting and challenging experience for everyone. You are required to immediately equip four years of knowledge into your teaching and classroom management. While this may seem to be a difficult time, it will only get easier. There are many rewards with being a teacher, however it is important to note that it is not a role to be taken lightly – it is a difficult role to fill. As teachers, we need to understand that every child will learn differently. No matter their culture, gender or socioeconomic status, so as teachers you have to encourage and have a level field in your classrooms. You have to know how to reach each student. As teachers you need to let the students know that they don’t have to follow the stereotyped roles of society. The teachers of 2010 and beyond will face many challenges that we are currently unaware of. What we can do to prepare for those challenges is look at where things may be headed in terms of technology and population and cultural diversity. PROFESSIONALISM & TECHNOLOGY â€Å"A professional doesn’t view his or her profession as a just a job, but rather sees it as a calling that is all about caring for children† – Kramer, 2003, p. 23 As an independent Australian Comics publisher (and short film producer), professionalism is what helps us stand out from the crowd. Look and presentation is vital,  we have to stick to various guidelines depending on your audience and where we are showcasing,  all this requires some serious  decision making and – when dealing with multiple artists – juggling some serious egos! Developing and maintaining relationships with other artists is imperative for us to continue to grow, and is just  as important to the relationship of student and teacher. We need to keep up to date with market, media  and consumer trends  just as both students and teachers must with  syllabus and curriculum†¦ nd indeed those same market, media and consumer trends. Change and adaption is incredibly  important as well, because without  it  you can't  move forward or stay fresh. To be a professional teacher you can't be a dictator,  but  more of great  artist  whose success is  drawn from the love of the craft,  nurturing the medium and understanding what the final masterpiece is meant to c onvey. In 2010 and beyond, our classrooms will transform into more of a technological teaching and learning environment. There are many new ways students can research information they need through resources such as the Internet. Teaching has also been altered, with the use of interactive whiteboards. To fulfil a professional role as a teacher, there are many different aspects to consider and behaviours to demonstrate. As role-models, these will pave the way for the students to become more professional themselves. It is important for a teacher to relate to each student in a professional manner. There are many ways to tutor students through advancements in technology such as the Internet, thus expanding the opportunities to be passed on to a new generation. Teachers should always teach with passion and a burning desire to touch hearts and change lives. Remember: it’s not just a job – it’s an honour. MOTIVATION and TEACHING STRATEGIES The description of motivation and the descriptions of the many various differing theoretical explanations for them are as follows†¦ The process of motivation itself is – simply put – starting towards a goal and keeping on the path until you achieve the goal. (Eggen and Kauchak 2010). An individual may well have different ideas in mind when achieving heir goals – whether they are moved by an extrinsic motivation (ie: the need to get there simply as a means to an end) or intrinsic motivation (doing it for the love of the subject) – the results are the same and both methods are valid. Admittedly, if you enjoy a subject it will give you more value as it will your teacher/s, but striving for that end result regardless will be an achievement. There are various theories of motivation, which shall be dealt with below. Through various cognitive theories, we know people really need to understand the world and their experiences to make sense of them and their place in that world. They can be as follows: Need for Self-Determination: this is where an individual feels the need to act on and control their environment to understand it – to have choices and to decide what they want to do. Praise, offers of help and other emotional factors can also be a part of self-determination. Need for Autonomy: here the individual feels the need to not only act on their environment, but to alter it to their way of thinking so that they can relate to it and learn more effectively. Need for Relatedness: this is where an individual feels the need for social connection and approval to facilitate their learning. Indeed, this factor is quite important as it fulfils the desire for approval and positive judging. Need to Preserve Self-Worth: simply put – this is the need to feel important – whether this is in a family group, friends, employment or any other social aspect – if we feel intelligent and important then our ability to learn likewise grows. Belief about future outcomes: This is a very personal part of learning and unique to each individual. The ability to guesstimate what the outcome of a project will be based upon your own knowledge of your capabilities will greatly influence your learning skills – the more you think you can, you will (Little Engine That Could – Watty Piper – 1930) Beliefs about Intelligence: the belief that you can or can NOT do a task will have a huge psychological impact upon your learning abilities. This can also be influenced by outside positive and negative feedback from others. Unless you are rock-solid positive you can do something despite negative criticism, that very criticism can undermine your belief in your own intelligence. The challenge is to find motivators for each and every student and use these to engage them in their education and learning. In terms of teaching and learning, motivation is the engagement that students have in their studies, and the efforts that they make to achieve their goals. Motivation can be split into two types, refer to Table 1. 1. Understanding student motivation is vital to the development of effective teaching strategies and necessary to discover different approaches to motivation and how these impact classroom decisions. pic] (Eggen and Kauchak, 2010) Table 1. 1 – Types of Motivation The behaviourist approach suggests that a student will gain a reward, either extrinsic or intrinsic, then the individual will be motivated to complete the task so as to receive it. From this we can determine that reward systems within the classroom can be used to increase student motivation, however Eggen and Kauchak (2010) stress that extrinsic rewards should be used to increase intri nsic motivation so as to promote learner independence. As teaching moves forward into 2010 and beyond, behaviourism is amongst the many learning theories in practice that is essential to good teaching. With diverse backgrounds and environmental factors, watching for the appropriate and inappropriate key behaviours in students is a complicated process in assuring desired behaviour is maintained. The cognitive approach suggests teachers should model how to claim responsibility for their success and failures, and should acknowledge that with additional effort past failures can be used as a learning tool. The Individuals’ Memory Stores play an important role, which contains the sensory memory to capture stimuli, working memory, phonological loop for words and sounds, and our visual-spatial sketch pad for our visual and spatial surroundings. All these various processes are active when we learn, and are fascinating examples of how the human mind operates. The humanist approach to motivation is dominated by the belief that all individuals have a number of needs that must be fulfilled (Eggen and Kauchak, 2010). These needs are categorised in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs outlined in figure 2. . The hierarchy suggests that if any of the lower level needs are not met then it is not possible for higher order ones to be fulfilled. Teachers must understand that these needs will not always be fulfilled within the home environment and various programs can be established to aid students when the home environment fails. [pic] (Eggen and Kauchak, 2010) Figure 2. 2 – Maslowsâ€⠄¢s Hierarch of Needs We must also remember that an integral aspect of motivation lies in aiming towards a particular achievement, or goal. A goal is an outcome that an individual is striving to achieve. Goals can be divided into four different types, see table 3. 3. [pic] (Eggen and Kauchak, 2010) Table 3. 3 – Types of Goals Classical conditioning is yet another form of learning that occurs when an individual produces an involuntary emotional or physiological response, similar to instinct or reflex (Pavlov, 1927). Figure 4. 4 (below) outlines the concepts in greater detail. [pic] (Eggen and Kauchak, 2010) Figure 4. 4 – Classical Conditioning Operant conditioning is where a response changes in frequency or duration as a result of a consequence (Skinner, 1953). This can be presented through either positive or negative reinforcement or through the presentation or removal of a punishment and shaping (Premack, 1965). Operant Conditioning can have a negative impact if used incorrectly, which can result in students not feeling safe, stressed and anxious about their environment. Constructivist Learning Theory is a theory that seems like common sense when you think about it, stating that learners create their own knowledge of topics they study as opposed to simply recording that information. Piaget 1952/ Vygotsky 1978). There are two primary perspectives for Constructivism: Cognitive Constructivism – focuses on internal construction of knowledge. Social Constructivism – focuses on constructing knowledge socially before internalising. Cognitive Apprenticeships is a process designed to places less able learners with more able ones to assist in developing their abilities. Peer-to-peer assistance provides many characteristics that assist learners through a new teaching experience. Some of these are modelling (watching demonstrations), scaffolding (being asked questions to prompt their learning), verbalisation (expressing their beliefs), increasing complexity (which does what the name implies) and exploration (finding new ways to use knowledge). This tool allows teachers to monitor other less able students, knowing that appropriate peer-to-peer learning is being undertaken with other less able students. The learning process of students will be influenced by many factors as you can see above. As they do, we need to keep a watchful eye on how they unfold. The challenge of teachers in 2010 and beyond is to find these motivators for each and every student and use them to engage them in education and learning. In the end, when teachers effectively motivate students their interest will increase along with their ability to learn. COMMITMENT and CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT When committing to creating a productive learning environment, the developmental stage of students should be considered. High-school students have different capabilities of primary-school students, so their classroom activities need to be more challenging (Eggen and Kauchak, 2010). Younger students are more responsive to concrete examples, while older students are capable of understanding theories and complex situations. If computer software is to be used in the classroom, it should be tailored to those stages of development. Younger students would require simple interfaces, less challenging problems, frequent feedback and recognition of achievement. Classroom management will also determine how effective the teaching is. Part of effective management is setting rules and procedures, and following them throughout the entire study period. The selection of topics attracts several issues. For the most part, teachers will be following a curriculum, but will prefer to place emphasis on particular sections of this framework. Their own personal knowledge and commitment, as well as the information that they deem important and useful, contributes to the various topics. There is also a need to plan how these topics will be delivered. Traditional instruction using lectures provides little interaction and feedback, so other strategies need to be looked at and implemented. The author Tony Newton intends to try and maintain a level of control using humour in much the same way his own third grade teachers did when he was young. Keeping in mind all the various technologies and ground rules that have to be in place, as well as students’ abilities and social interaction, (Maximizing the Time and Opportunity for Learning – Eggen and Kauchak, 2010 – pg 355) a classroom MUST be organised, arranged appropriately and personal. For Mr. Newton’s own class, he also firmly believe if kids have fun, they will learn more. Then we have Ability Grouping, being the practice of sorting students into groups of similar intelligence/ learning capabilities. We need to remember that if we begin segregating students early on, then those who are quicker cannot scaffold or mentor the slower ones up to speed. Social ramifications here are also dangerous where those smarter think they may be â€Å"better† than their less able peers†¦ and friendships can then also suffer. Tolerance and assistance must be cultivated to prevent these prejudices from booming out of proportion in later life. CONCLUSION The theories of learning and teaching covered above provide useful background information for new teachers entering the workforce. Situations that we encounter will be unique, though it is always beneficial to be prepared and plan for the journey ahead. Reviewing literature and applying some of these techniques can assist with understanding how people learn, different teaching methods, and the factors to consider when building a classroom. Moving forward into 2010, teachers are advised to consider these theories and incorporate many different levels of educational tools, through appropriate modes, that assist in developing the students’ learning construction. Although we do not know what classrooms will be like in the future, this is something that we actually determine ourselves. When we are first starting out, we will need to create our own style and approach, making up our own rules. Although teachers are expected to give instruction, it is still a learning experience. Thankfully there are a lot of resources at our disposal. Remember to keep improving our teaching craft, and we will be able to adapt to the demands of classrooms in 2010 and beyond. Reference List Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations on Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-Efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Borko, H. , and Putnam R. (1996). Handbook of educational psychology. Macmillan; United States of America. Eggen, P. , and Kauchak, D. (2010). Educational Psychology: Windows On Classrooms (8th ed. ). In H. Gardner, and S. Moran, The Science of Multiple Intelligences Theory. United States of America: Pearson International. Mayer, R. , (2002). Teaching of subject matter. Annual review of psychology,55, 715-744. Pavlov,  I. P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes translated by G V Anrep. Oxford University Press, London, England. Piaget, J. (1977). Problems in quilibration. In M. Appel, and L. Goldberg, Topics in cognitive development: Vol. 1. Equilibration: Theory, research, and application. New York: Plenum Press. Premack, D. 1965). Reinforcement theory. In D. Levine (Ed. ), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 13, pp. 3-41). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York. Macmillan. Woolfolk, A. , and Margetts,K. (2007). Educational psychology. Sydney, Australia: Pearson Education Australia. Vinesh Chandra and Darrell L. Fisher (2009). Students' Perceptions of a Blended Web-Ba sed Learning. Environment. Learning Environ Res. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. The Little Engine That Could – Watty Piper – 1930